Guest 123, I'd like to focus on one part of your comment- "old African festival called Jonkonnu which is speculated to be the name of a slave trader"...

For what it's worth, I side with those who disagree with the theory that the celebration of Jonkanoo ["Kunering"; "John Canoe"; "Junkanoo" etc} is named after a slave trader. Part of my rejection of this oft repeated theory is that I can't imagine why enslaved people would honor a slave trader by giving his name to a festive occassion.

I've compile some comments about Jonkanoo for those who may not be familiar with this celebration.

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkanoo for a brief summary of the history and customs associated with Jonkanoo.

Also, here's a quote about Jonkanoo which I wrote down years ago, but didn't adequately cite its source. I'm sharing this statement here because it includes other theories about the meaning of the word Jonkanoo:

..."The origin of the word Junkanoo is obscure. Some say it comes from the French "L'inconnu" (meaning the unknown), in reference to the masks worn by the paraders; or "junk enoo," the Scottish settlers' reference to the parades, meaning "junk enough;" or "John Canoe," the name of an African tribal chief who demanded the right to celebrate with his people even after being brought to the West Indies in slavery.

It is believed that this festival began during the 16th and 17th centuries. The slaves were given a special holiday at Christmas time, when they could leave the plantations to be with their family and celebrate the holidays with African dance, music and costumes. After emancipation, they continued this tradition and, today, Junkanoo has evolved from its simple origins to a formal, more organized parade with sophisticated, intricate costumes, themed music and incentive prizes"...

-snip-

Also, see an 19th century Jamaican Jonkanoo illustration by Belisario http://hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu/Slavery/details.php?categorynum=12&categoryName=&theRecord=6&recordCount=54

An excerpt of the description of this lithograph follows:

"Captioned "Koo, Koo, or Actor Boy," this lithograph depicts an elaborately costumed and masked male dancer surrounded by on-lookers and musicians; he carries a whip and fan, the former used for clearing his path, the latter for cooling himself when his mask is lifted (see image Belisario03, for another "Actor Boy" unmasked). Belisario gives a detailed description of "John-Canoe" festivities and also speculates on the origin of the name. With respect to this illustration, he writes the "band consists of drums and fifes only, to which music the Actor stalks most majestically, oftentimes stopping to afford the by-standers a fair opportunity of gazing at him . . . .The foundation [of his headdress] is an old hat, affording the wearer the means of sustaining the superstructure, to which it is firmly attached, and composed of various colored beads, bugles, spangles, pieces of looking-glass, tinsel, etc. attached to a pasteboard form trimmed round the edges with silver lace, surmounted with feathers. The garments are of muslin, silk, satin, and ribbons." This illustration, as well as others of "John-Canoes," were drawn from life by Belisario in 1836.

-snip-

In addition, see this excerpt from http://www.bahamasentertainers.com/Paper/slaves.html

..."One tradition that survived and can be traced back as early as the eighteenth century in Jamaica is John Canoe [also referred to as Junkanoo, John Cani, or Jonkannu]. This masked dance would have been an integral part of African ceremonies and processions. (Claypole, Robottom 2001). This practice is said to have been a part of ceremonies conducted by powerful male secret societies of West African Poro and Egungun dancers. We can find traces of these ceremonies even today in places such as Jamaica, Belize, and certain parts of the United States"...

-snip-

And, lastly as regards to this post, see these comments from an educator's lesson plan for the science fiction book "Midnight Robber", written by the author Nalo Hopkinson, a Caribbean author who weaves elements of Afro-Caribbean folk culture into her book's plots:

..."Jonkanoo was a masquerade celebration and competition during slavery in many Caribbean islands and included an element of defiance and resistance. Many English texts spelled the festival "John Canoe" and were fascinated by the practice of crafting and wearing complicated sculptures, shaped as a ship, sometimes rather house like...[and in the book "Midnight Robber"] Jonkanoo provides a family holiday to commemorate this shared exile and shared heritage – and to keep the historical practices of their ancestors alive..."

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/rosenber/lit4188fall2003/wk15classoutlines.html